Filtration

Filtration is any of various mechanical, physical or biological operations that separate solids from fluids (liquidsor gases) by interposing a medium through which only the fluid can pass. The fluid that passes through is called the filtrate. In physical filters oversize solids in the fluid are retained and in biological filters particulates are trapped and ingested and metabolites are retained and removed. However, the separation is not complete; solids will be contaminated with some fluid and filtrate will contain fine particles (depending on the pore size ,filter thickness and biological activity). Filtration occurs both in nature and in engineered systems; there arebiologic, geologic, and industrial forms. For example, in animals (including humans), renal filtration removeswastes from the blood, and in water treatment and sewage treatment, undesirable constituents are removed by absorption into a biological film grown on or in the filter medium, as in slow sand filtration

APPLICATIONS :

• Filtration is used to separate particles and fluid in a suspension, where the fluid can be a liquid, a gas or a supercritical fluid. Depending on the application, either one or both of the components may be isolated.
• Filtration, as a physical operation is very important in chemistry for the separation of materials of different chemical composition. A solvent is chosen which dissolves one component, while not dissolving the other. By dissolving the mixture in the chosen solvent, one component will go into the solution and pass through the filter, while the other will be retained. This is one of the most important techniques used by chemists to purify compounds.
• Filtration is also important and widely used as one of the unit operations of chemical engineering. It may be simultaneously combined with other unit operations to process the feed stream, as in the biofilter, which is a combined filter and biological digestion device.
• Filtration differs from sieving, where separation occurs at a single perforated layer (a sieve). In sieving, particles that are too big to pass through the holes of the sieve are retained (see particle size distribution). In filtration, a multilayer lattice retains those particles that are unable to follow the tortuous channels of the filter. Oversize particles may form a cake layer on top of the filter and may also block the filter lattice, preventing the fluid phase from crossing the filter (blinding). Commercially, the term filter is applied to membranes where the separation lattice is so thin that the surface becomes the main zone of particle separation, even though these products might be described as sieves.
• Filtration differs from adsorption, where it is not the physical size of particles that causes separation but the effects of surface charge. Some adsorption devices containing activated charcoal and ion exchange resin are commercially called filters, although filtration is not their principal function.
• Filtration differs from removal of magnetic contaminants from fluids with magnets (typically lubrication oil, coolants and fuel oils), because there is no filter medium. Commercial devices called "magnetic filters" are sold, but the name reflects their use, not their mode of operation.

TUTORIAL LINK : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0a9EEkgd_6s

Excavator

Excavators (Hydraulic Excavators) are heavy construction equipment consisting of a boom, dipper (or stick), bucket and cab on a rotating platform known as the "house". The house sits atop an undercarriage with tracks or wheels. They are a natural progression from the steam shovels and often mistakenly called power shovels. All movement and functions of a hydraulic excavator are accomplished through the use of hydraulic fluid, with hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors. Due to the linear actuation of hydraulic cylinders, their mode of operation is fundamentally different from cable-operated excavators which uses winches and steel ropes to accomplish the movements.

Excavators are also called diggers, JCBs (a proprietary name, in an example of a generic trademark), mechanical shovels, or 360-degree excavators(sometimes abbreviated simply to 360). Tracked excavators are sometimes called "trackhoes" by analogy to the backhoe. In the UK, wheeled excavators are sometimes known as "rubber ducks."

TUTORIAL LINK : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T48DkL9ZfL8

Automatic Street Light

A street light, light pole, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road or walkway. Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells that activate automatically when light is or is not needed: dusk, dawn, or the onset of dark weather. This function in older lighting systems could have been performed with the aid of a solar dial. Many street light systems are being connected underground instead of wiring from one utility posts to another.

TUTORIAL LINK: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=Famb4zAHPLE

Hydroelectric Power Station

Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy, accounting for 16 percent of global electricity generation – 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity production in 2010, and is expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years.

Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use.

The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour. It is also a flexible source of electricity since the amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. However, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of the (CO₂) than fossil fuel powered energy plants.

TUTORIAL LINK: Can be made as a model. LEDs can be added along with batteries to show electricity production.

Electric Car

An electric car is an automibi that is propelled by one or more electric motors, using electrical energy stored in rechargeable batteries or another energy storage device. Electric motors give electric cars instant torque, creating strong and smooth acceleration. They are also around three times as efficient as cars with an Internal combustion engine.

The first electric cars were produced in the 1880s. Electric cars were popular in the late 19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engine and mass production of cheaper gasoline vehicles led to a decline in the use of electric drive vehicles.

TUTORIAL LINK: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=UnxNe_XjlWg

Rain Sensor

A rain sensor or rain switch is a switching device activated by rainfall. There are two main applications for rain sensors. The first is a water conservation device connected to an automatic irrigation system that causes the system to shut down in the event of rainfall. The second is a device used to protect the interior of an automobile from rain and to support the automatic mode of windscreen vipers. An additional application in professional satellite communications antennas is to trigger a rain blower on the aperture of the antenna feed, to remove water droplets from the mylar cover that keeps pressurized and dry air inside the wave-guides.

Rain sensors for irrigation systems are available in both wireless and hard-wired versions, most employing hygroscopic disks that swell in the presence of rain and shrink back down again as they dry out — an electrical switch is in turn depressed or released by the hygroscopic disk stack, and the rate of drying is typically adjusted by controlling the ventilation reaching the stack. However, some electrical type sensors are also marketed that use tipping bucket or conductance type probes to measure rainfall. Wireless and wired versions both use similar mechanisms to temporarily suspend watering by the irrigation controller — specifically they are connected to the irrigation controller's sensor terminals, or are installed in series with the solenoid valve common circuit such that they prevent the opening of any valves when rain has been sensed.

Some irrigation rain sensors also contain a freeze sensor to keep the system from operating in freezing temperatures, particularly where irrigation systems are still used over the winter.

TUTORIAL LINK: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=GnkMgYbjaao

Current Sensor

A current sensor is a device that detects electric current (AC or DC) in a wire, and generates a signal proportional to it. The generated signal could be analog voltage or current or even digital output. It can be then utilized to display the measured current in an ammeter or can be stored for further analysis in a data acquisition system or can be utilized for control purpose.

TUTORIAL LINK: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=pN_IKGnDwIg

Carbon Catcher And Storage

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) (or carbon capture and sequestration) is the process of capturing waste carbondioxide (CO₂) from large point sources, such as fossil fuel power plant, transporting it to a storage site, and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere, normally an underground geological formation. The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of CO₂ into the atmosphere (from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries). It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emission to global warming and ocean acidification. Although CO₂ has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes, including enchanced oil recovery, the long term storage of CO₂ is a relatively new concept. 

An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Shwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall, to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency. CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce CO₂ emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80–90% compared to a plant without CCS. The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10% and 55% of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100.

Capturing and compressing CO₂ may increase the fuel needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25–40%. These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost of the energy produced by 21–91% for purpose built plants. Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive especially if they are far from a sequestration site. Recent industry reports suggest that with successful research, development and deployment (RD&D), sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today. Storage of the CO₂ is envisaged either in deep geological formations, or in the form of mineral carbonates. Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification. Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites. The National Energy Technology Laboratary (NETL) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates. A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain, and there is still the risk that CO₂ might leak into the atmosphere.

TUTORIAL LINK: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=9uVdi-3AqRE

Illusion Mirror

An illusion mirror is a pair of mirrors, one fully reflective and the other a one-way mirror, set up so that the fully reflective mirror reflects an image back into the one-way mirror, in a recursive manner, creating a series of smaller and smaller reflections that appear to recede into an infinite distance. They are used as room accents and in artwork.This effect is also seen when a subject stands between two fully reflective mirrors, as in a changing room or house of mirrors.

In a classic self-contained infinity mirror, a set of light bulbs, LEDs, or other point-source lights are placed at the periphery of a fully reflective mirror, and a second, partially reflective one-way mirror, is placed a short distance in front of it. When an observer looks into the surface of the partially reflective mirror, the lights appear to recede into infinity, creating the appearance of a tunnel of lights of great depth.

The reflections recede into the distance is that the light actually is traversing the distance it appears to be traveling. In a two-centimeter thick infinity mirror, with the light sources halfway between, light from the source only travels that one centermeter. The first reflection travels one centimeter to the rear mirror and then two centimeters to, and through the front mirror, a total of three centimeters. The second reflection travels two centimeters from front mirror to back mirror, and again two centimeters from the back mirror to, and through the front mirror, totaling four centimeters, plus the first reflection (three centimeters) making the second reflection seven centimeters away from the front mirror. Each successive reflection adds four more centimeters to the total (the third reflection appears 11 centimeters deep, fourth 15 centimeters deep, and so on).

The multiply-reflected light follows a folded path which is much deeper than the arrangement of mirrors. In theory, such a surface is infinite in area, but encloses a finite volume.

TUTORIAL LINK: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=b2bvWArORSc

Balloon Powered Car

  Your balloon powered car demonstrates Newton's 3rd law of motion. Newton's third law states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. When the air from the balloon goes through the straw, it carries a force. The direction of this force is in the direction of the flow of the air, in your case, to the back of the car. This is force is 'action'. According to Newton's 3rd law, there should be an equal and opposite reaction. The reaction force will then work opposite of the air flow, meaning towards front of the car. This force will cause the car to move forward. So you see, Newton's 3rd law can explain your balloon powered car. 

TUTORIAL LINK: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=A963BG3k_h4 

Step Up And Step Down Transformers

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive force across a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields. Commonly, transformers are used to increase or decrease the voltages of alternating current in electric power applications.

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the transformer's secondary winding. This varying magnetic field he secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. Making use of Faraday's law (discovered in 1831) in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties, transformers can thus be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power networks.

Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electrical energy. A wide range of transformer designs are encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons.

TUTORIAL LINK: Can be made as a model. Batteries can be added along with LED's to show electricity production.

Salt Water Battery

A salt water battery employs a concentrated saline solution as its electrolyte. They are nonflammable and more easily recycled than batteries that employ toxic and/or flammable materials.

Aquion Energy's batteries are classified as standard goods with no special handling required in shipment. It has no life-reducing side reactions while not in use. It is robust to any variable cycling profiles and long duration intervals while partially charged. Maintenance cycling to maintain performance/life is unnecessary. Its optimal operating temperature range is -5 °C to 40 °C and are little affected by operational temperature swings. It operates without auxiliary loads or an external power supply. Its chemistry not susceptible to thermal runaway. Active thermal management is generally required, except given extreme ambient temperature.Its mechanical materials can be recycled in normal recycling streams. Chemical materials can be disposed without special equipment or containers.

A different design used an electrolyte that has a salt to water ratio of six to one, nearly saturated, such that it could also be called a water in salt battery.

TUTORIAL LINK: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=5vOuj_feM2s

Lemon Battery

A lemon battery is a simple battery often made for the purpose of education. Typically, a piece of zinc metal (such as a galvanized nail) and a piece of copper (such as a penny) are inserted into a lemon and connected by wires. Power generated by reaction of the metals is used to power a small device such as a LED.

The lemon battery is similar to the first electric battery invented in 1800 by Alessendro Volta, who used brine (salt water) instead of lemon juice. The lemon battery illustrates the type of chemical reaction (oxidation-reduction) that occurs in batteries. The zinc and copper are called the electrodes, and the juice inside the lemon is called the electrolyte. There are many variations of the lemon cell that use different fruits (or liquids) as electrolytes and metals other than zinc and copper as electrodes.

CHEMICAL REACTION:-

TUTORIAL LINK: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=rB11w2c4RnM

Potato Battery

A  Potato Battery is a simple battery often made for the purpose of education. Typically, a piece of zinc metal (such as a galvanized nail) and a piece of copper a (penny) are inserted into a lemon and connected by wires. Power generated by reaction of the metals is used to power a small device such as a LED.

The lemon battery is similar to the first electric battery invented in 1800 by Alessendro Volta, who used brine (salt water) instead of potato juice. The potato battery illustrates the type of chemical reaction (oxidation-reduction) that occurs in batteries.The zinc and copper are called the electrodes, and the juice inside the potato is called the electrolyte. There are many variations of the potato cell that use different fruits (or liquids) as electrolytes and metals other than zinc and copper as electrodes.

Potatoes have phosphoric acid and work well; they are the basis for commercial "potato clock" kits. Due to a misunderstanding of the energy source, potato batteries with LED lighting have been proposed for use in poor countries or by off-grid populations. International research begun in 2010 showed that boiling potatoes for eight minutes improves their electrical output, as does placing slices of potatoes between multiple copper and zinc plates. Boiled and chopped plantain pith (stem) is also suitable, according to Sri Lankan researchers. The energy comes from the metal, not from the potato or other plant, and refining the metal consumes more energy than is delivered.

CHEMICAL REACTION:-

TUTORIAL LINK: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=noI7TmspMrM

Fire Alarms

A fire alarm system is number of devices working together to detect and warn people through visual and audio appliances when smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or other emergencies are present. These alarms may be activated from smoke detectors, and heat detectors. Alarms can be either motorised bells or wall mountable sounders or horns.

Primary power supply: Commonly the non-switched 120 or 240 volt alternating current source supplied from a commercial power utility. In non-residential applications, a branch circuit is dedicated to the fire alarm system and its constituents. "Dedicated branch circuits" should not be confused with "Individual branch circuits" which supply energy to a single appliance.

Secondary (backup) power supplies: This component, commonly consisting of sealed lead-acid storage batteries or other emergency sources including generators, is used to supply energy in the event of a primary power failure.

Initiating devices: This component acts as an input to the fire alarm control unit and are either manually or automatically activated. Examples would be devices pull stations, heat detectors, or smoke detectors. Heat and smoke detectors have different categories of both kinds. Some categories are beam, photoelectrical, aspiration, and duct.

After the fire protection goals are established – usually by referencing the minimum levels of protection mandated by the appropriate model building code, insurance agencies, and other authorities – the fire alarm designer undertakes to detail specific components, arrangements, and interfaces necessary to accomplish these goals. Equipment specifically manufactured for these purposes is selected and standardized installation methods are anticipated during the design.

Some fire alarm systems utilize emergency voice alarm communication systems (EVACS) [6] to provide pre-recorded and manual voice messages. Voice Alarm systems are typically used in high-rise buildings, arenas and other large "defend-in-place" occupancies such as Hospitals and Detention facilities where total evacuation is difficult to achieve.

TTUTORIAL LINK: http://m.youtube.com/watch?v=IaGQMxPap5o

Mini Walking Robot

This robot is used for many purposes. Its main use is for farming. It has other uses such as working in nuclear stations and places where there is a risk to human life.

TUTORIAL LINK: http://m.youtube.com/watch?v=EmrxTOVJrnA

Water Rocket

A water rocket is a type of model rocket using water as its reaction mass. Such a rocket is typically made from a used plastic soft drink bottle. The water is forced out by a pressurized gas, typically compressed air. Like all rocket engines, it operates on the principle of Newton's third law of motion.

The bottle is partly filled with water and sealed. The bottle is then pressurized with a gas, usually air compressed from a bicycle pump, air compressor, or cylinder up to 125 psi, but sometimes CO2 or nitrogen from a cylinder.

Water and gas are used in combination, with the gas providing a means to store potential energy, as it is compressible, and the water increasing the mass fraction and providing greater force when ejected from the rocket's nozzle. Sometimes additives are combined with the water to enhance performance in different ways. For example: salt can be added to increase the density of the reaction mass resulting in a higher specific impulse. Soap is also sometimes used to create a dense foam in the rocket which lowers the density of the expelled reaction mass but increases the duration of thrust.

Water and gas are used in combination, with the gas providinThe seal on the nozzle of the rocket is then released and rapid expulsion of water occurs at high speeds until the propellant has been used up and the air pressure inside the rocket drops to atmospheric pressure. There is a net force created on the rocket in accordance with Newton's third law. The expulsion of the water thus can cause the rocket to leap a considerable distance into the air.

In addition to aerodynamic considerations, altitude and flight duration are dependent upon the volume of water, the initial pressure, the rocket nozzle's size, and the unloaded weight of the rocket. The relationship between these factors is complex and several simulators have been written to explore these and other factors.

Often the pressure vessel is built from one or more used plastic soft drink bottles, but polycarbonate fluorescent tube covers, plastic pipes, and other light-weight pressure-resistant cylindrical vessels have also been used.

Typically launch pressures vary from 75 to 150 psi (500 to 1000 kPa). The higher the pressure, the larger the stored energy.

TUTORIAL LINK: http://m.youtube.com/watch?v=5YS-ETfGM8w 

Pet Immune Sensor

Pet immune motion detectors disregard the motion caused by animals weighing less than 80 pounds (in many instances). Most security system motion detectors use passive infrared (PIR) motion detector technology to monitor heat changes in a designated area.

With a traditional motion detector, when your pet enters the coverage area, a sensor is tripped and causes a false alarm. Pet immune motion detectors ignore the motion caused by animals and thus reduce the likelihood a false alarm. Features vary by manufacturer and model, but can include selectable sensitivity for pets up to 40 pounds or those weighing up to 80 pounds and can be set to disregard one large pet, like a full-grown dog or several small pets, like cats.

TUTORIAL LINK: http://m.youtube.com/watch?v=PHRVonRc_ug

Generating Electricity From Friction

This is a power project based on the fact that electricity can be generated with the help of speed  breaker by making gear arrangement and using electronics gadgets, thus a huge amount of electricity can be generated saving lot of money. And if implemented will be very beneficial.

This is the new method of electricity generation,This project is about GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY with the SPEED BREAKERS. Generally when vehicle is in motion it produces various forms of energy like, due to friction between vehicle’s wheel and road i.e. rough surface heat is produced.An energy crisis is any great bottleneck in the supply of energy resources to an economy.It usually refers to the shortage of oil and additionally to electricity or other natural resources. An energy crisis may be referred to as an oil crisis, petroleum crisis, energy shortage, electricity shortage electricity crisis.

This project will work on the principle of “POTENTIAL ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONVERSION”Potential energy can be thought of as energy stored within a physical system. This energy can be released or converted into other forms of energy, including kinetic energy. It is called potential energy because it has the potential to change the states of objects in the system when the energy is released If h is the height above an arbitrarily assigned reference point.

Kinetic energy of an object is the extra energy which it possesses due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its current velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. Negative work of the same magnitude would be required to return the body to a state of rest from that velocity. The kinetic energy can be calculated using the formula:In this project a mechanism to generate power by converting the potential energy generated by a vehicle going up on a speed breaker into kinetic energy.

When the vehicle moves over the inclined plates, it gains height resulting in increase in potential energy, which is wasted in a conventional rumble strip When the breaker come down, they crank a lever fitted to a ratchet-wheel type mechanism (a angular motion converter).This in turn rotates a geared shaft loaded with recoil springs. The output of this shaft is coupled to a dynamo to convert kinetic energy into electricity.A vehicle weighing 1,000 kg going up a height of 10 cm on such a rumble strip produces approximately 0.98 kilowatt power. So one such speed-breaker on a busy highway, where about 100 vehicles pass every minute, about one kilo watt of electricity can be produced every single minute.

Knowledge of following terms is very useful while making project.

TUTORIAL LINK: New idea can be made like the project above. Batteries can be attached to the street lights. So when the car passes the speed breaker the lights will start by the button in the transformer.

Smoke Detector

A smoke detector is a device  that senses smoke, typically as an indicator of fire. Commercial security devices issue a signal to a fire alarm control panel as part of a fire alarm system, while household detectors, known as smoke alarms, generally issue a local audible or visual alarm from the detector itself.

Smoke detectors are typically housed in a disk-shaped plastic enclosure about 150 millimetres (6 in) in diameter and 25 millimetres (1 in) thick, but the shape can vary by manufacturer or product line. Most smoke detectors work either by optical detection (photoelectric) or by physical process (ionization), while others use both detection methods to increase sensitivity to smoke. Sensitive alarms can be used to detect, and thus deter, smoking in areas where it is banned. Smoke detectors in large commercial, industrial, and residential buildings are usually powered by a central fire alarm system, which is powered by the building power with a battery backup. However, in many single-family detached and smaller multiple family housings, a smoke alarm is often powered only by a single disposable battery.

Some smoke alarms use a carbon monoxide sensor or carbon dioxide sensor to detect characteristic products of combustion. However, some gas sensors react on levels that are dangerous for humans but not typical for a fire; these are therefore not generally sensitive or fast enough to be used as fire detectors.[citation needed] Other gas sensors are even able to warn about particulate-free fires (e. g. certain alcohol fires).

Obscuration is a unit of measurement that has become the standard definition of smoke detector sensitivity. Obscuration is the effect that smoke has on reducing sensor visibility; higher concentrations of smoke result in higher obscuration levels.

TUTORIAL LINK: Can be bought online or from any Electric appliances store.